Introduction
In the dental setting, patients often present with fear, anxiety, embarrassment, or stress, which can complicate communication and the clinical encounter (Höglund et al., 2024; Yuan et al., 2020). These emotional dynamics can make navigating a clinical appointment especially challenging for dental professionals and may be particularly demanding for students and novice clinicians who are still developing their clinical confidence and communication skills (Krasniqi et al., 2021). For the dental hygienist, the ability to manage one’s own emotions and recognize patient emotions is important for empathetic communication and patient-centered care (Hasan & Inglehart, 2025; Kishinevsky et al., 2023). Although emotional intelligence (EQ) is not a new concept in healthcare, a limited but growing body of research has begun to examine EQ and related outcomes among dental hygiene students (Collins et al., 2024; Partido et al., 2020; Partido & Colon, 2024; Partido & Owen, 2020; Partido & Stafford, 2018).
Emotional intelligence is the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ emotions in order to guide personal thinking and actions in a given situation (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). In healthcare, the ability to recognize, understand, regulate, and respond to emotions is an important component of effective communication and patient-centered care (Birks & Watt, 2007; Ghrayeb et al., 2025). In practice, these skills may help clinicians recognize emotional cues, respond with empathy, and establish rapport with patients, which has been associated with improved communication, greater patient satisfaction, shared or negotiated treatment planning, better adherence, and reduced dental anxiety (Ho et al., 2025; Kristensen & Asimakopoulou, 2023). Patients’ perspectives on dental hygiene care suggest that clinicians’ social-emotional interpersonal skills positively influence person-centered interactions (Rogo et al., 2022). Higher healthcare provider emotional intelligence has been associated primarily with patient satisfaction and communication-related outcomes rather than clearly established improvements in objective health outcomes (Birks & Watt, 2007; Chanda et al., 2025).
Emotional Intelligence and Higher Education
In higher education and health professions education, competencies such as communication, professionalism, teamwork, adaptability, empathy, and self-regulation are often described as soft skills, career-readiness competencies, or professional skills (McNulty & Politis, 2023; National Association of Colleges and Employers, 2024). Although these abilities are widely valued, they can be difficult to define, teach, and assess consistently. NACE identifies communication, professionalism, teamwork, leadership, and career and self-development as core career-readiness competencies for college graduates (NACE, 2024). In health professions education, empathy, emotional intelligence, and interprofessional skills have been described as professional skills that should be intentionally defined, mapped within curricula, and evaluated to support students’ professional development (McNulty & Politis, 2023). Emotional intelligence may provide one framework for helping educators make these soft skills more visible, teachable, and measurable.
Emotional Intelligence and Healthcare
A significant body of literature supports the use of emotional intelligence training to improve EQ and communication among healthcare workforces. Studies have revealed that students and healthcare providers who participated in EQ training programs often increased their EQ scores, suggesting that these competencies can be developed through education and practice (Fletcher et al., 2009; Gilar-Corbi et al., 2018; Larsen & White, 2024; Powell et al., 2024; Taylor et al., 2023). In one systematic review, the greatest improvements were reported in self-awareness, empathy, problem-solving, stress coping, and emotion management (Taylor et al., 2023). Emotional intelligence-focused educational interventions have also been associated with improvements in communication and related interpersonal skills, adaptability, and stress management (Fletcher et al., 2009; Gilar-Corbi et al., 2018; Powell et al., 2024). Taken together, these findings suggested that emotional intelligence training may be a valuable educational strategy in health professions education and may help prepare dental hygiene students to provide competent, compassionate, patient-centered care (Larsen & White, 2024; Taylor et al., 2023).
The Present Study
Published research on emotional intelligence in dental hygiene students remains limited. To date, studies in this population have primarily examined associations between emotional intelligence and academic performance, professionalism, stress and burnout, conflict management, communication, and ethics (Partido et al., 2020; Partido & Colon, 2024; Partido & Owen, 2020; Partido & Stafford, 2018; Partido & Stefanik, 2020). Related dental hygiene literature also addressed empathy and person-centered care in educational and clinical contexts (Collins et al., 2024; Kishinevsky et al., 2023; Rogo et al., 2022, 2023). Because dental hygiene education and practice emphasize individualized, person-centered care, communication, and interpersonal relationships, examining the effects of emotional intelligence training in this population is relevant and warranted (Kishinevsky et al., 2023; Rogo et al., 2022, 2023). The purpose of this study was to evaluate changes in the emotional intelligence scores of undergraduate dental hygiene students following emotional intelligence training. The primary aim was to determine whether EQ training was associated with improved EQ scores among undergraduate dental hygiene students.
Methods
Study Design
This retrospective study used a quantitative, single-group pretest-posttest design to evaluate changes in emotional intelligence scores following EQ training embedded within the required curriculum of a Bachelor of Science dental hygiene program. Students completed the baseline EQ assessment at the beginning of their second semester in the dental hygiene program. This semester consisted of two consecutive 10-week terms, Terms 9 and 10, for a total of 20 weeks. During Term 9, EQ training focused on self-awareness and self-management. During Term 10, EQ training focused on social awareness and relationship management. Students completed the post-assessment at the end of Term 10, which marked the conclusion of the second semester. Both the EQ assessment and EQ training were completed as part of the required curriculum.
Emotional Intelligence Curriculum
The EQ curriculum was delivered through assigned readings, faculty-led classroom presentations, classroom discussion, reflective journaling, collaborative learning activities, quizzes, and examinations. In Term 9, students completed assigned readings from Chapters 4, 5, and 6 of Emotional Intelligence 2.0, which focused on self-awareness and self-management (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009). Instructional activities included a faculty-led presentation addressing both skill domains, classroom discussion, and two reflective journal prompts, one focused on self-awareness and one focused on self-management. Learning objectives for Term 9 emphasized defining emotional intelligence, discussing the four skill domains of EQ, practicing self-awareness, applying self-management strategies, and justifying the value of self-awareness and self-management for personal and professional growth.
In Term 10, students completed assigned readings from Chapters 7 and 8 of Emotional Intelligence 2.0, which focused on social awareness and relationship management (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009). Instructional activities included a faculty-led presentation addressing both skill domains, classroom discussion, reflective journaling focused on social awareness and relationship management, and a collaborative clinical case activity requiring students to apply social awareness and relationship management strategies. Learning objectives for Term 10 emphasized discussing and applying social awareness and relationship management strategies, applying these strategies to clinical cases, and explaining their value in the provision of patient care. Across both terms, student learning was assessed through quizzes, examinations, and journal assignments. Following the initial EQ instruction in Terms 9 and 10, emotional intelligence concepts were reinforced throughout the students’ senior year (Terms 11-14) through continued classroom discussion, clinical application, reflective activities, and integration into professional development assignments.
Participants
Participants included undergraduate dental hygiene students enrolled in their pre-clinical coursework between January 2020 and August 2025. The final analytic sample included 371 students from 17 cohorts who completed both the baseline and post-assessment. Students without matched baseline and post-assessment scores were excluded from the analysis. Because the assessment was administered as a required part of the curriculum, students were not actively recruited for the study; instead, the study used existing educational data collected through routine course activities. This study was reviewed and determined to be exempt from IRB oversight by the West Coast University Institutional Review Board. Although participation was required as part of the educational program, student identifiers were used solely to match pre- and post-assessment responses, and all findings were analyzed and reported in aggregate without identifying individual students.
Instrument
Emotional intelligence was measured using the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal® -Self Edition associated with Emotional Intelligence 2.0 (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009). The appraisal is an online self-report measure that assesses the frequency with which individuals demonstrate behaviors related to emotional intelligence skills. The instrument was a 28-item EQ measure developed by TalentSmartEQ rated on a 6-point frequency scale from 1=never to 6=always (TalentSmart, 2018).
The assessment is available as a book-based appraisal through Emotional Intelligence 2.0 and is designed to provide an overall EQ score as well as scores in four emotional intelligence skills: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management (TalentSmart, 2018; TalentSmartEQ, 2023). The four skills are organized into two broader competencies: personal competence, which includes self-awareness and self-management, and social competence, which includes social awareness and relationship management (TalentSmart, 2018).
The developers of the appraisal describe the four skills scores within the instrument framework as self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management (TalentSmart, 2018). Within this framework, self-awareness reflects the ability to accurately perceive one’s own emotions and remain aware of them as they occur; self-management reflects the ability to use emotional awareness to remain flexible and positively direct behavior; social awareness reflects the ability to accurately recognize emotions in others and understand interpersonal situations; and relationship management reflects the ability to use awareness of one’s own emotions and the emotions of others to manage interactions successfully, including clear communication and conflict management.
Scores on the appraisal are norm-converted to a 1–100 scale, with a reported mean of 75 and standard deviation of 10 (TalentSmart, 2018). Publisher-reported psychometric documentation supports the instrument’s reliability and validity. For the Self Edition, coefficient alphas for the four emotional intelligence skills are reported to range from .79 to .92 (TalentSmartEQ, 2023). Construct validity analyses reported in the technical manual support an overall EQ score with a two-factor structure organized around personal competence and social competence (TalentSmart, 2018).
Data Analysis
Pre- and post- Emotional Intelligence Appraisal® -Self Edition scores were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistical methods. Mean and standard deviations were calculated for each cohort individually and all cohorts combined for the individual EQ skill domains of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship awareness as well as the combined categories of personal competence and social competence. The mean and standard deviation for the pre- and post- overall EQ score for each cohort and all cohorts combined were also calculated. Pre- and posttest scores were compared using a dependent samples t-test using Microsoft Excel. Significance was set at p<0.05.
Results
A total of 371students with paired pre- and posttest EQ scores were analyzed from 18 cohorts. A total of 50 students without pre- and/or posttest data were excluded from analysis. Among the participants, 311 were females (83.8%) and 60 were males (16.2%).
The mean pretest scores ranged from 73.6 to 79.1 and the mean posttest scores ranged 76.4 to 80.5 out of 100. The posttest scores for Self-Awareness (p= 0.0002), Self-Management (p< 0.0001) and Personal Competence (p< 0.0001) were significantly higher than the pretest scores. In addition, the posttest scores for Relationship Management (p= 0.0037) and Social Competence (p= 0.0152) were significantly higher than the pretest scores. There was no significant difference between the pre- and posttest scores for the Social Awareness skill domain (p= 0.1972). The overall EQ posttest score was significantly higher than the pretest score (p< 0.0001). See Table 1 for all means, standard deviations, and p-values.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to explore whether emotional intelligence training was associated with improved emotional intelligence scores among undergraduate dental hygiene students. Overall, students demonstrated statistically significant improvement in total EQ scores from the beginning to the end of the semester in which EQ training was delivered. Significant increases were also observed in three of the four skills domains of self-awareness, self-management, and relationship management. Social awareness scores increased slightly but did not reach statistical significance. The two competencies of personal competence and social competence also improved significantly. Taken together, the findings suggest that emotional intelligence education, when intentionally integrated into the curriculum, may be a meaningful strategy for supporting the development of self-regulatory and interpersonal abilities commonly described as soft skills.
The significant improvement in overall EQ scores is consistent with previous research suggesting that emotional intelligence can be developed through structured educational interventions. Emotional intelligence training has been associated with improved EQ scores among students and healthcare providers, supporting the idea that these skills and competencies can be strengthened through education, reflection, and practice rather than viewed as fixed personal traits (Fletcher et al., 2009; Gilar-Corbi et al., 2018; Larsen & White, 2024; Powell et al., 2024; Taylor et al., 2023). The findings from this study align with this body of literature by demonstrating positive changes in EQ scores following an educational intervention delivered during the students’ second semester in the dental hygiene program.
Personal Competence
The strongest improvements occurred in personal competence, particularly self-awareness and self-management. Within the appraisal framework, these domains reflect students’ perceived ability to recognize their emotions and use emotional awareness to guide behavior. This finding is relevant because dental hygiene students must manage academic demands, clinical expectations, patient anxiety, faculty feedback, peer relationships, and professional role development. The significant increase in self-management is especially important in clinical education, where students are expected to remain calm, ethical, receptive, and patient-centered while managing complex tasks and interpersonal demands. These findings suggest that EQ education may help students recognize emotional responses and respond more intentionally in academic and clinical situations.
Relationship Management
Relationship management also improved significantly, indicating growth in students’ perceived ability to manage interactions with others. This domain reflects the use of emotional awareness to navigate communication, feedback, collaboration, and conflict. The finding has practical relevance because person-centered care depends on communication, interpersonal skills, and responsiveness to patients’ needs and perspectives (Kishinevsky et al., 2023; Rogo et al., 2022, 2023). Prior dental hygiene research has examined emotional intelligence in relation to professionalism, stress and burnout, conflict management, communication, ethics, and academic performance (Partido et al., 2020; Partido & Colon, 2024; Partido & Owen, 2020; Partido & Stafford, 2018; Partido & Stefanik, 2020). The present study extends this work by examining changes in EQ scores following intentional curricular integration.
Social Competence
Although social competence improved overall, social awareness did not increase significantly. Social awareness may be more complex to develop and measure because it requires students to recognize emotions in others and interpret interpersonal situations in real time. In dental and dental hygiene care, this skill is connected to empathy, person-centered communication, and recognition of patient fear, anxiety, embarrassment, or stress (Höglund et al., 2024; Kishinevsky et al., 2023; Rogo et al., 2022; Yuan et al., 2020). Students may also have entered the semester with higher baseline scores in this area, leaving less room for measurable improvement. Future refinements could include activities focused on empathy, perspective-taking, anxiety recognition, motivational interviewing, conflict scenarios, and person-centered communication.
Emotional Intelligence and Soft Skills
These findings also relate to broader concerns about soft skills in higher education. Communication, professionalism, adaptability, teamwork, empathy, and emotional regulation are frequently expected of students but are not always taught or assessed in a structured way. Emotional intelligence may provide a framework for making these skills more visible, teachable, and measurable. Rather than treating soft skills as fixed traits, EQ education positions them as developmental competencies that can be practiced, reflected upon, and reinforced over time.
What may distinguish this approach is that emotional intelligence was not treated as a stand-alone workshop or as an informal byproduct of clinical education. Instead, it was intentionally embedded within the required curriculum through structured instruction, guided reflection, journaling, discussion, and pre- and post-assessment. The content was deliberately organized around the four EQ domains, allowing students to focus first on self-awareness and self-management, followed by social awareness and relationship management, while revisiting these concepts in later terms. In this way, EQ was positioned as a developmental thread within the program rather than as a single enrichment activity. Such an approach may be especially valuable in dental hygiene education because it makes the interpersonal and self-regulatory aspects of professional preparation more explicit, teachable, and connected to authentic clinical learning.
The findings are also relevant to patient-centered care. Dental patients may experience anxiety, fear, stress, or embarrassment, which can affect communication, trust, treatment acceptance, and the clinical encounter (Höglund et al., 2024; Yuan et al., 2020). Emotional intelligence may help clinicians recognize emotional cues, respond with empathy, and build rapport with patients (Ho et al., 2025; Kristensen & Asimakopoulou, 2023). For dental hygiene students, strengthening EQ may support compassionate, responsive, and effective patient interactions.
The timing of the intervention should be interpreted carefully. Baseline EQ assessment occurred at the beginning of the students’ second semester, formal EQ training was delivered during that semester, and the post assessment occurred at the end of the same semester. Therefore, the observed changes reflect the semester in which EQ training was introduced, not the later senior-year reinforcement. Continued EQ activities during the senior year may have supported application, reflection, and professional identity development, but this study did not measure whether those later experiences sustained or increased EQ scores.
Limitations
Several limitations should be considered. The study did not include a control group; therefore, changes in EQ scores cannot be attributed solely to the EQ curriculum. Student maturation, clinical experience, faculty mentoring, peer interaction, and other program experiences may have contributed to growth. The study also used a self-report, proprietary instrument; therefore, findings should be interpreted as changes in students’ self-perceived emotional intelligence rather than direct evidence of observable changes in clinical communication, professionalism, or patient-centered behaviors. Individual cohort results varied, and the single-program design may limit generalizability. Finally, the pretest/posttest design captured change only during the 20-week semester and did not include a follow-up assessment.
Despite these limitations, this study contributes to the limited literature on emotional intelligence education in dental hygiene students by examining pre- and post-training EQ scores across multiple cohorts. Future research should examine whether EQ score changes are associated with observable outcomes such as clinical communication, professionalism, patient satisfaction, faculty assessment, peer collaboration, stress management, or retention. Multi-institutional and mixed-methods studies would clarify how students apply EQ concepts in clinical practice and professional growth.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of emotional intelligence training on the emotional intelligence scores of undergraduate dental hygiene students. Although results from most cohorts did not show a significant difference between pre- and posttest scores, the overall results were significant when all 17 cohorts were combined, except in the social awareness skill domain. Together, the evidence points to the intentional integration of emotional intelligence education as a valuable strategy for enhancing self-regulatory and interpersonal abilities, frequently described as soft skills. Future research should consider a larger sample size from more dental hygiene institutions to confirm the effects of emotional intelligence training on emotional intelligence scores.
Acknowledgements
The authors sincerely thank Professor Aubreé Chismark for her leadership in integrating emotional intelligence into the dental hygiene curriculum.