Introduction
Over the past few decades, the people of Cuba have demonstrated resilience. They have endured obstacles such as food insecurity, regression of agricultural practices, and an economic collapse. Cubans have attempted to make necessary changes in their environment to ensure their community and culture live on. Since the collapse of the Soviet trade bloc in 1989 and the ensuing economic crisis, Cuban food security and food production have become Cuba’s most immediate need (Weissman, 2005). Officially called the Special Period in Time of Peace, the ongoing economic crisis has affected Cuban food security (Altieri et al., 1999). The socialist bloc had accounted for 85% of Cuba’s trade, and with its collapse, Cuban imports dropped by 75% and the deficit reached 33% of GDP (Altieri et al., 1999). While the Special Period is generally understood to have eased by the late 1990s, it has had a profound and lasting effect on the Cuban economy and food systems. According to the World Food Program (2020), Cuba is facing a high percentage (70-80%) of imported domestic food requirements. To meet these challenges, Cuba has not only undertaken the largest shift to organic farming techniques, but also has restructured its social and economic systems from the ground up (Oppenheim, 2001). More recently, research has demonstrated innovative projects that aim for sustainable food systems (Benítez et al., 2020; Lucantoni, 2020).
Food Security in Cuba
To date, there is limited information about household food security levels, as well as factors associated with food security among Cubans. Household food security status is often determined using a module that addresses questions about behaviors and experiences associated with food needs. A module by United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has been shown to identify food-insecure households with reasonably high specificity and sensitivity and minimal bias (USDA, 2012). Food insecurity negatively affects health, cognition, emotional regulation, health and development of children, and economic costs to the country (Ettinger de Cuba et al., 2013). Mathews et al. (2010) found a significant relationship between food insecurity and self-reported poor health among adults. It is possible that food insecurity negatively affects perceived health and nutrition. Perceived health is a subjective rating of one’s self-evaluation of their health status. Perceptions of nutrition and health also include an assessment of their health status based on a combination of one’s subjective assumption and actual information regarding their health (Heuberger et al., 2013). Perceptions of health can affect actual health and nutritional status, as well as influence motivation to make changes. A person’s perceptions of health can be influenced by numerous factors such as age, gender, ethnicity, and traditional foods (Heuberger et al., 2013). Limited information about the relationship between food security and perceived health or nutrition exists.
Traditional Food
Another important factor associated with food security in Cuba is traditional foods. Traditional foods are defined as foods that are differentiated through particular qualitative aspects and have a specific cultural identity fit with the aforementioned evolution (Jordana, 2000). A traditional food product is a ‘‘representation of a group, it belongs to a defined space, and it is part of a culture that implies the cooperation of the individuals operating in that territory’’ (Bertozzi, 1998). Derived from this sociological definition is the following: ‘‘In order to be traditional, a product must be linked to a territory and it must also be part of a set of traditions, which will necessarily ensure its continuity over time’’ (Jordana, 2000).
Changes in the Cuban food system have influenced what foods are considered “traditionally Cuban.” With Cuba having influences from different countries and the addition of the Special Period, the idea of traditional food varies across households and even generations.
Cuban food has a variety of influences ranging from Spanish colonial rule, African slaves working on the sugar and coffee plantations, and the French and Haitian cuisine that entered Cuba during and after the Haitian Revolution. In addition to Spanish, French, and African influences, Chinese immigrants have also added culinary tastes to the Cuban palate, as well as North Americans in the nineteenth and twentieth century (Garth, 2013).
Satisfaction with Food-related Life
Additionally, satisfaction with food-related life has been identified as an important factor associated with food security. According to Grunert et. al. (2007), satisfaction with food-related life is defined as “an overall evaluative assessment of that part of a person’s life comprising procurement, preparation and consumption of food and meals according to their chosen criteria” (Grunert et al., 2007, p. 487). It allows people to apply their own criteria as to what is satisfactory for them and what is not (Grunert et al., 2007). Too little food creates discontent and preoccupation among people. When food is plentiful and people have access to sufficient food supplies, it does not occupy the mind in the way and to the extent when food is not plentiful (Grunert et al., 2007). Research indicates that satisfaction with food-related life is associated with overall life satisfaction and well-being (Grunert et al., 2007). For a long time, food has been a measure of Cuban well-being, not only in terms of individual nutrition, but also in terms of national political and economic well-being. It has been an essential medium through which Cubans measure their social standing and quality of life (Dawdy, 2002). Although research indicates that culture plays important roles in satisfaction with food-related life (Chiodo et al., 2022; Schnettler et al., 2012), there is limited information about how culture shapes satisfaction with food-related life among Cubans. According to Schnettler et al. (2012), adherence to study participants’ traditional dietary practices has not only a positive influence on satisfaction with food-related life, but overall satisfaction with life. In dealing with food scarcity, Cubans were required to adapt to different foods than their traditional preferences. Past research indicates that despite food shortages, the sharing of meals has been one of the greatest resources for pleasure and connection (Paponnet-Cantat, 2003). The current study will help readers understand Cubans’ satisfaction with food-related life based on their current food security status and how various adaptations to food scarcity have influenced their current food options.
Research Objective
The objective of this research study was to examine factors associated with food security and satisfaction with food-related life. The study also aimed to identify strategies Cubans have created to adapt to hardships within the country. The root of their food security status stems from their economic history and different ways they adapted their farming practices. The current study examined modifications Cubans have made in their daily lives, such as cooking strategies, to cope with food-related challenges at the household level.
Methods
Human Subjects Approval
This study was reviewed and approved by the Human Subjects Review Board at California State University, Chico.
Study Design
This study was a cross-sectional study. Validated surveys were given to measure food security status, satisfaction with food-related life, traditional food consumption, and perceptions of health and nutrition. Open-ended questions were included to further understand participants’ food consumption and strategies for coping with food-related issues.
Study Participants
The study participants consist of adults (18 years or older) who reside in Havana and Cojimar, Cuba. In Havana, data was collected primarily in the neighborhoods of Vedado, Centro Havana, and Miramar, including participants working in Havana but living in the neighborhood of Alamar, across the bay. Surveys were distributed via contacts of a committee member who is an expert in Cuban studies and has extensive expertise in research in Cuba. The survey was originally created online using a software program called Qualtrics and intended to be distributed in the same way; however, obstacles were faced for this type of data collection. There is a low percentage of the Cuban population that have access to the internet, very low work and home accounts, limited allowed minutes, dial-up technology, many accounts with restrictions, expensive WIFI usage (1USD/min), and many US-based apps and websites–including Qualtrics– block access to Cubans. To continue the study, in-person dissemination using paper surveys was used.
Instrument Development
The survey was written in English and then translated into Cuban Spanish and verified by a Spanish language expert and a Cuban volunteer. The survey also included variables related to food security status, satisfaction with food-related life, demographics, traditional food consumption and perceived health and perceived nutrition. The instrument was selected based on the literature review and existing measures and is discussed below.
Satisfaction with Food-Related Life Scale
The Satisfaction with Food-Related Life (SWFL) Scale used was a validated 5-item scale that provides reliable, valid indicators of quality of life (Grunert et al., 2007). It was designed to measure the aspects of an individual’s life involving procurement, preparation, and consumption of food and meals using a 1-7 scale (1=Strongly disagree and 7= Strongly agree). A higher score on the SWFL scale indicated a greater satisfaction with food-related life.
Food Security
The Food Security Status score used a 6-item short form of the survey module. It was developed to assess House Food Security Status in the U.S. It has been shown to identify food-insecure households and households with very low food security with reasonably high specificity and sensitivity with minimal bias (USDA, 2012). Food security status was assigned as: 0-1 High/marginal food security, 2-4 Low food security, and 5-6 Very low food security.
Traditional Food Consumption
Traditional food consumption was measured using the questionnaire by Pieniak et al. (2009) that included a single item measure: "To what extent do you consider yourself a consumer of traditional food?‘’ on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from ‘‘very much’’ (7) to ‘‘not at all’’ (Pieniak et al., 2009).
Perceived Nutrition & Health
The survey by Heuberger et al. (2013) was used to measure perceived nutrition and health. The survey consisted of two questions, “how do you perceive your health at this time?” and “how do you perceive your nutritional status?” Responses could range from 1 (very poor health/nutrition) to 6 (excellent health/nutrition).
Open-ended Questions
Open-ended questions were asked about traditional food habits, food items/ingredients they would like to eat but don’t get a chance to eat, traditional meals they would like to eat but don’t get a chance to eat, and any changes they would like to make about the food they eat at home and outside the home.
Data Analysis
SPSS (version 27) was used for statistical analysis of quantitative data collected. Descriptive statistics was created using frequencies and percentages. Chi-Square was used to examine the relationship between food security status and demographic and socio-cultural factors such as age, ethnicity, gender, education, employment, marital status, household size, and location associated with food security. ANOVA and Tukey multiple comparisons were used to examine participants’ SWFL scores, perceived health, and perceived nutrition scores among three food security groups. Pearson’s Correlation and Spearman’s Correlation were used to examine the relationships between SWFL scores and food security, perceived health, perceived nutrition and traditional food consumption. Finally, multiple linear regression was used to examine significant predictors of satisfaction with food-related life.
Results
Participant Demographics
A total of 68 Cuban adults participated in the survey. The total sample consisted of 30.9% males and 69.1% females. The largest number of participants were aged 41-65 (43.5%), graduated from university (36.2%), identified as white (59.4%), currently employed by the state sector (44.9%), single (43.5%), residing in a 2 person or less household (52.2%), and living in an urban area (56.5%). However, a substantial number of participants identified as non-white (38%), and 40% of participants reported being married. All the demographic information is included in Table 1.
Food Security Status and Factors Associated with Food Security
The total percentage of overall food security in the study sample was high/marginal (n=20, 29.4%), low (n=22, 32.35%), and very low (n=26, 38.24%). Among the participants who were food secure, 12 participants (17.7%) had marginal food security and 8 (11.6%) had high food security. No statistical difference was found in food security and location; however, it’s important to note that very low food security status (46.2%) was more prevalent in urban areas while high food security status was more common in rural areas (40.7%).
When the relationships between food security status and other demographics factors were examined, no statistical significance was found with age (p=0.144), gender (p=0.991), ethnicity (p=0.657), education (p=0.199), marital status (p=0.449), and household size (p=0.139).
Table 2 shows factors associated with food security. The overall score of SWFL has a minimum of 1 and a maximum of 7. The overall average score of SWFL in the study sample was 4.463 (± 1.301). ANOVA revealed that SWFL was a significant factor associated with food security (p=0.011). Post-hoc Tukey’s multiple comparisons revealed that there was a significant difference in SWFL between very low food security status (M = 3.83, SD = 1.22) and high or marginal food security (M = 5.13, SD = 1.34) with p=0.008. The result indicates that participants with very low food security status had a significantly lower level of SWFL compared to participants with high or marginal food security. Perceived nutrition and perceived health had a minimum score of 1 and a maximum score of 6. In the sample, the overall average scores of perceived health and perceived nutrition were 3.46 (± 1.099) and 3.03 (± 0.977) respectively. There was a significant mean difference in perceived nutrition among very low (M= 2.35, SD = 0.689), low (M = 3.14, SD = 0.889), and high/marginal (M = 3.8, SD = 0.768) food security groups with p<0.001. There was an overall significant difference in perceived health among the three groups (p< 0.001). Tukey’s multiple comparisons revealed that there was a significant difference between very low (M = 2.81, SD = 0.694) and high/marginal food security (M = 4, SD = 1.12) with p<0.001. The result indicates that participants with very low food security status had a significantly lower level of perceived health compared to participants with high or marginal food security.
A negative correlation was found when comparing the association between food insecurity and traditional food consumption (p=0.022, r = -0.280), perceived nutrition (p<0.001, r = -0.648), and perceived health (p<0.001, r = -0.48) as shown in Table 3.
Factors Associated with SWFL
SWFL was positively correlated with traditional food consumption (p=0.001, r = 0.467), perceived nutrition (p<0.001, r = 0.487), and perceived health (p=0.009, r = 0.374) as shown in table 3. Multiple linear regression revealed that traditional food consumption was a significant predictor of SWFL (p=0.016) after controlling for food security, perceived health and perceived nutrition.
Strategies for Preserving Food Tradition
In the survey participants were asked to note various ways they preserved traditional food habits. In Cojimar, consuming traditional foods like rice, beans, Congri (Cuban black beans and rice), and very little meat was more common among study participants. Participants in Havana were experiencing challenges in preserving traditional food habits. Some participants noted:
“We can’t, there is no way of preserving traditional food habits if there is no food. Maybe in the beginning of the month but then there is no food. There is only surviving.” (Male, over 65)
“It is really difficult at this moment to preserve traditional food habits. It has been a long time now that the Cuban families only have one meal per day.” (Female, 41-65)
The current study’s findings are consistent with our results of food security status in urban versus rural locations. More people in urban areas indicated less food availability. On the other hand, some participants noted that they managed to continue consuming some traditional foods that are available to them.
“I try to make traditional foods like creole and yuca.” (Male, age 41-65)
“Rice, beans, congri, eggs, I cook these almost everyday.” (Female, age 41-65)
“I eat rice often as well as black beans, fish and other fish products.” (Male, over 65)
Qualitative data shows a much more complex picture, specifically that Cubans are only continuing to eat a few of the traditional food items and lacking what can be argued as the most valued items. This is a more ambivalent but truer answer to the research question. Also, this could be the place to reveal actual strategies for acquiring food reported by those surveyed.
Desired Food Items
Study participants were asked to describe food items they would like to eat but don’t get a chance to eat often. In Cojimar, fresh fruits, vegetables, beef, seafood, and dairy products were common items listed as desired ingredients. In Havana, it was more common that beef, pork, fish and milk were desired food items. Some answers from participants include:
“Fruit, vegetables, milk products, fish, meat, candy.” (Female, age 41-65)
“Beef, fresh fish, chicken, creole, pork, shrimp, tropical fruits, legumes, candy.” (Male, age 41-65)
“Fish, pork, ham, milk, fruit, beef.” (Female, over 65)
“Cheese, ham, natural yogurt, fruit, fish, all kinds of meat.” (Male, 18-25)
“Beef, seafood, eggs, sheep, fish, cheese, yogurt, milk, coffee, milk, sugar, beans.” (Female, 41-65)
“I would like lentils, black beans, meat, beef, pork, chicken, eggs, fish, seafood, cheese, varying fruit, sheep, potato, salad.” (Male, 41-65)
Discussion
The purpose of this research study was to examine factors associated with food security and satisfaction with food-related life among Cuban adults. Both in the United States and in developing nations, food insecurity is often linked to poverty, shifts in the global economy and rises in food and oil prices. To the authors’ knowledge, the current study is one of the first studies that examined factors associated with food security among Cubans. This study demonstrated the challenge of food insecurity in Cuba with 70.6% of people having low or very low food security status. This study suggests that urban areas have more prevalence of very low food security status compared to rural areas. This finding may be due to space limitation in urban areas and more people in rural areas tending to keep livestock and more gardens.
Food Security and Traditional Food Consumption
This research helps us understand how food security status affects people’s lives. The study findings, like the study by Mathews et al. (2010), show a significant positive correlation between perceived health and nutrition and food security status. However, there was no significant difference in traditional food consumption among the three food security groups. This finding indicates that some of the participants in the low or very low food security status category still eat traditional foods even if they are food insecure. Even if food shortages happen, they continue to eat traditional foods. This finding is potentially due to the low cost of common, traditional food items like beans and rice. Research by Rodríguez et al. (2016) examined eating behaviors in Cuban adults. Results from that study suggested that there were fewer people who practiced restrained eating among Cubans compared to Italians (Rodríguez-Martín et al., 2016). The current study gives insight into those results because of the current nature of food availability in Cuba. We found that even preserving food tradition is difficult with the current state of Cuba.
Role of Traditional Food Consumption in Health and Well-being
The current study revealed that food security was also associated with perceived nutrition and health, as well as with satisfaction with food-related life, which indicates that food security may affect their health and well-being. A study by Belyea (2018) demonstrated complaints about the difficulty of procuring a sufficient quantity and quality of food, what is available at various locations and the cost of food items from different sources in Cuba. Results of the current study indicate similar concerns by revealing insufficiency of food items and limited food choices for Cubans. This concern is seen among Cubans of all classes. Beyla (2018) also found that overall food insufficiency was considered the most pressing or daily encountered problem among participants. The current study revealed that some of the people who are food insecure still consume some traditional foods. Furthermore, after controlling for other variables, traditional food consumption was a significant predictor of satisfaction with food-related life, which is also an indicator of quality of life (Grunert et al., 2007). More studies are needed to examine traditional food’s role in Cubans’ satisfaction with food-related life and their overall well-being.
Study Limitations
There are several limitations in this study. This study was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, which reduced the imports Cuba can receive, and may have influenced participants’ answers. For instance, products such as tomato sauce or paste, a staple in Spanish cuisine that is present in many traditional Cuban recipes, have been mostly unavailable. The pandemic has also influenced access to being able to eat in groups, which is important in Cuban culture and may be an important factor affecting their traditional food consumption. Therefore, the findings of this study may not be generalizable to post-pandemic times.
The sample size of the study was small and is not representative of the larger population of Cuba. There was no validated instrument to assess food security in Cuba and the use of the U.S. food security survey was a limitation. Participants’ political views when taking the survey may have biased how they answered the questions due to favorable or unfavorable beliefs about the revolution. Finally, the study also lacked a specificity of traditional food items versus traditional Cuban dishes. This can be made clearer with references to literature and the survey results.
Conclusion
Cubans have demonstrated that they can survive, and even thrive, under the most adverse of conditions (Weissman, 2021). Food insecurity is a serious problem that may threaten health, development, and emotions. Limited research is conducted on the current Cuban food security status. Examination of Cuban food security and satisfaction with food-related life is lacking in published research, and more mixed methods research is needed to identify issues related to food insecurity. Based on the current study’s findings, satisfaction with food-related life appears to be positively influenced by food security status and traditional food consumption. The current study also highlighted the challenges in maintaining traditional food habits. Future research is needed to develop strategies for increasing food security and satisfaction with food-related life among Cubans.